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The history of manga is said to originate from scrolls dating back to the 12th century; however, whether these scrolls are actually manga is still disputed, though it's believed they represent the basis for the right-to-left reading style. Other authors report origins closer to the 18th century. Manga is a Japanese term that can be translated as "cartoon"; Historians and writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. Their views differ in the relative importance they attribute to the role of cultural and historical events following World War II versus the role of pre-War, Meiji, and pre-Meiji Japanese culture and art. One view emphasizes events occurring during and after the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945–1952), and stresses that manga was strongly shaped by United States cultural influences, including U.S. comics brought to Japan by the GIs and by images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).〔Kinsella, Sharon 2000. ''Adult Manga: Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society.'' Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2318-4.〕〔Schodt, Frederik L. 1986. ''Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics.'' Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 978-0-87011-752-7.〕 The other view, represented by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, and Adam L. Kern, stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji culture and art.〔, , , 〕 According to Sharon Kinsella, the booming Japanese publishing industry helped create a consumer-oriented society in which publishing giants like Kodansha could shape popular taste.〔 ==Before World War II== Writers such as Takashi Murakami have stressed events after WWII, but Murakami sees Japan's defeat and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as having created long-lasting scars on the Japanese artistic psyche, which, in this view, lost its previously virile confidence in itself and sought solace in harmless and cute (''kawaii'') images. However, Takayumi Tatsumi sees a special role for a transpacific economic and cultural transnationalism that created a postmodern and shared international youth culture of cartooning, film, television, music, and related popular arts, which was, for Tatsumi the crucible in which modern manga have developed. For Murakami and Tatsumi, trans-nationalism (or globalization) refers specifically to the flow of cultural and subcultural material from one nation to another.〔〔 In their usage, the term does not refer to international corporate expansion, nor to international tourism, nor to cross-border international personal friendships, but to ways in which artistic, aesthetic, and intellectual traditions influence each other across national boundaries.〔〔 An example of cultural trans-nationalism is the creation of ''Star Wars'' films in the United States, their transformation into manga by Japanese artists, and the marketing of ''Star Wars'' manga to the United States. Another example is the transfer of hip-hop culture from the United States to Japan. Wong also sees a major role for trans-nationalism in the recent history of manga. However, other writers stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions as central to the history of manga. They include Frederik L. Schodt,〔〔Schodt, Frederik L. 1996. ''Dreamland Japan: Writings on Modern Manga.'' Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press. ISBN 978-1-880656-23-5.〕 Kinko Ito,〔Ito, Kinko. 2004. "Growing up Japanese reading manga." ''International Journal of Comic Art'', 6:392-401.〕 Adam L. Kern,〔Kern, Adam. 2006. ''Manga from the Floating World: Comicbook Culture and the Kibyoshi of Edo Japan.'' Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02266-1.〕〔Kern, Adam. 2007. "Symposium: Kibyoshi: The World's First Comicbook?" ''International Journal of Comic Art'', 9:1-486.〕 and Eric Peter Nash.〔Nash, Eric Peter. 2009. (''Manga kamishibai: the art of Japanese paper theater'' ). Abrams. ISBN 081095303X.〕 Schodt points to the existence in the 13th century of illustrated picture scrolls like Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga that told stories in sequential images with humor and wit.〔 Schodt also stresses continuities of aesthetic style and vision between ukiyo-e and shunga woodblock prints and modern manga (all three fulfill Eisner's criteria for sequential art).〔Eisner, Will. 1985. ''Comics & Sequential Art.'' Tamarac, Fl: Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-1-8.〕 While there are disputes over whether Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga or Shigisan-engi was the first manga, both scrolls date back to about the same time period. However others like Isao Takahata, Studio Ghibli co-founder and director, contends there is no linkage with the scrolls and modern manga. Schodt and Nash also see a particularly significant role for kamishibai, a form of street theater where itinerant artists displayed pictures in a light box while narrating the story to audiences in the street.〔〔 Torrance has pointed to similarities between modern manga and the Osaka popular novel between the 1890s and 1940, and argues that the development of widespread literacy in Meiji and post-Meiji Japan helped create audiences for stories told in words and pictures.〔Torrance, Richard. 2005. "Literacy and literature in Osaka, 1890-1940." Journal of Japanese Studies, 31(1):27-60. Web version: http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_japanese_studies/v031/31.1torrance.html Accessed 2007-09-16.〕 Kinko Ito also roots manga historically in aesthetic continuity with pre-Meiji art, but she sees its post-World War II history as driven in part by consumer enthusiasm for the rich imagery and narrative of the newly developing manga tradition. Ito describes how this tradition has steadily produced new genres and markets, e.g., for girls' (''shōjo'') manga in the late 1960s and for Ladies Comics (''redisu'') in the 1980s.〔 Kern has suggested that ''kibyoshi'', picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books.〔 These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.〔 Although Kern does not believe that ''kibyoshi'' were a direct forerunner of manga, for Kern the existence of ''kibyoshi'' nonetheless points to a Japanese willingness to mix words and pictures in a popular story-telling medium.〔 The first recorded use of the term "manga" to mean "whimsical or impromptu pictures" comes from this tradition in 1798, which, Kern points out, predates Katsushika Hokusai's better known ''Hokusai Manga'' usage by several decades.〔Bouquillard, Jocelyn and Christophe Marquet. 2007. Hokusai: First Manga Master. New York: Abrams.〕〔Kern, 2006, ''op. cit.'', pp. 139-144, Figure 3.3.〕 Similarly, Inoue sees manga as being a mixture of image- and word-centered elements, each pre-dating the U.S.A. occupation of Japan. In his view, Japanese image-centered or "pictocentric" art ultimately derives from Japan's long history of engagement with Chinese graphic art, whereas word-centered or "logocentric" art, like the novel, was stimulated by social and economic needs of Meiji and pre-War Japanese nationalism for a populace unified by a common written language. Both fuse in what Inoue sees as a symbiosis in manga.〔Inoue, Charles Shirō. 1996. "Pictocentrism—China as a source of Japanese modernity." In Sumie Jones, editor. 1996. ''Imaging/Reading Eros.'' Bloomington, IN: East Asian Studies Center, Indiana University. pp. 148-152. ISBN 0-9653281-0-4.〕 The roots of the wide-eyed look commonly associated with manga dates back to shōjo magazine illustrations during the late 19th to early 20th centuries. The most important illustrators associated with this style at the time were Yumeji Takehisa and particularly Jun'ichi Nakahara, who, influenced by his work as a doll creator, frequently drew female characters with big eyes in the early 20th century. This had a significant influence on early manga, particularly shōjo manga, evident in the work of influential manga artists such as Makoto Takahashi and Riyoko Ikeda.〔https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j1LLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA24〕 Thus, these scholars see the history of manga as involving historical continuities and discontinuities between the aesthetic and cultural past as it interacts with post-World War II innovation and trans-nationalism. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「History of manga」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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